{"id":129082,"date":"2024-08-23T15:24:42","date_gmt":"2024-08-23T19:24:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/?p=129082"},"modified":"2026-04-27T13:01:58","modified_gmt":"2026-04-27T17:01:58","slug":"theories-of-free-will","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/","title":{"rendered":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Are your choices truly your own? Does science prove that free will is just an illusion?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In his book <em>Determined<\/em>, Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and presents compelling counterarguments. He addresses four scientific perspectives on free will, including compatibilism, chaoticism, emergent complexity, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/quantum-indeterminacy-free-will\/\">quantum indeterminacy<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Prepare to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/challenge-your-beliefs\/\">challenge your beliefs<\/a> about <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/methods-of-decision-making-crucial-conversations\/\">decision-making<\/a> and human behavior as we examine these thought-provoking theories.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--more-->\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-scientific-theories-of-free-will\">Scientific Theories of Free Will<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>We\u2019ll explore four science-based theories of free will and Sapolsky\u2019s counterarguments to those theories:&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><strong>Compatibilism: <\/strong>the theory that objects must behave according to deterministic natural laws, but people can choose their own actions.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Chaoticism: <\/strong>the theory that human behavior is so unpredictable that it must be the result of free will, because no natural laws can explain it.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Emergent complexity: <\/strong>the theory that free will can\u2019t be explained by the behavior of individual brain cells but <em>can <\/em>be explained by the interactions between those cells.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Quantum indeterminacy: <\/strong>the theory that because subatomic particles don\u2019t follow the laws of determinism, people (who are made of such particles) can behave indeterminately as well.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Theory #1: Compatibilism<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>First of all, Sapolsky says many people believe that determinism and free will can both be true; in other words, that they\u2019re compatible with each other. These <em>compatibilists <\/em>believe the universe is deterministic and runs according to unchangeable laws of nature, but people are still able to make decisions within the constraints of those natural laws. In short,<strong>the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/hub\/society-culture\/philosophy\/compatibilism-free-will\/\">compatibilist view<\/a> is that determinism narrows your options, but it doesn\u2019t narrow them down to just one option like Sapolsky believes.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For instance, you can\u2019t flap your arms and fly to the grocery store, because doing so would break the laws of physics. However, you\u2019re still free to choose whether to walk, bike, or drive to the store.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sapolsky-s-argument-against-the-compatibilism-theory\">Sapolsky\u2019s Argument Against the Compatibilism Theory<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Sapolsky says that it <em>seems <\/em>like you\u2019re deciding what mode of transportation to use, but you\u2019re really being influenced by countless factors like convenience, how much energy you have, how much time you can spend on this trip, and how much storage space you\u2019ll need. After considering all of those different elements you come to a single conclusion, which he says is the only conclusion you could possibly have reached under those specific circumstances.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Theory #2: Chaoticism<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p><em>Chaoticism<\/em>\u2014also called <em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/the-butterfly-effect-theory\/\">chaos theory<\/a><\/em>\u2014is a cross-disciplinary field of science and math that studies <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/complicated-system\/\">complex systems<\/a> and how small changes can have enormous, unpredictable effects on those systems over time. People who favor the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/chaos-theory-and-free-will\/\">chaotic theory of free<\/a> will say that humans are very complex and therefore unpredictable. They argue that there\u2019s no scientific or mathematical way to link causes (what someone is experiencing) with effects (what they decide to do because of it), which leaves free will as the only possible explanation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sapolsky-s-argument-against-the-chaoticism-theory\">Sapolsky\u2019s Argument Against the Chaoticism Theory<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Sapolsky says that the chaotic theory of free will has several glaring flaws.&nbsp;First of all, proponents of this theory are confusing <em>unpredictability <\/em>with <em>indeterminism<\/em>. In other words,<strong> they think that since they don\u2019t know what will happen, future events haven\u2019t been determined yet. <\/strong>However, this isn\u2019t necessarily true.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For example, imagine shuffling a deck of cards and drawing the top card. That event is <em>unpredictable <\/em>because you don\u2019t know which card you\u2019re going to draw, but it&#8217;s still <em>predetermined <\/em>because the order of cards was fixed as soon as you stopped shuffling. To look at it another way, only one card could possibly be on top of the deck (as determined by how you shuffled it)\u2014you just don\u2019t know which card that is. Tying this example back to human behavior, Sapolsky would say that a human can\u2019t decide to do something other than what is predetermined, the same way that a deck of cards can\u2019t decide to change which card is on top.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Secondly, this argument implies that being unable to link cause with effect means there is no cause. So, if you don\u2019t know why someone did something, then there must not have been a definitive reason for their action\u2014they simply chose to do it. Sapolsky retorts that this misinterprets a fundamental point of chaoticism, which is that <strong>all events have definitive causes, but in many cases we\u2019ll never be able to figure out what those causes were.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Theory #3: Emergent Complexity<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The next concept Sapolsky discusses is <em>emergent complexity: <\/em>the idea that <strong>complex behaviors or properties can arise from the interactions between relatively simple things.<\/strong> For example, no single neuron has the ability to store information\u2014however, when a lot of neurons communicate with each other in certain ways, we gain the ability to learn and remember things. Some people argue that, like memory, free will must be an emergent property of the brain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sapolsky-s-argument-against-the-emergent-complexity-theory\">Sapolsky\u2019s Argument Against the Emergent Complexity Theory<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Sapolsky\u2019s argument against this theory is that <strong>emergent properties are often unexpected, but never impossible.<\/strong> Brain cells can\u2019t simply activate themselves without any stimulus, meaning they can\u2019t create thoughts and decisions that are free of external influences.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>(Shortform note: Whether or not this argument holds up depends largely on how you define free will. Neurologists say that thought\u2014which includes the ability to solve problems and make decisions\u2014<em>is <\/em><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC7149951\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">an emergent property<\/a>, made possible by various sections of the brain communicating with each other. The next question, then, is whether free will is an inherent part of thought, and therefore an emergent property of the brain. Trying to answer that brings us back to some fundamental questions of deterministic human behavior: Do the various factors influencing our thoughts make it so that only one decision is possible in any given situation? Alternatively, as we asked in earlier commentary, should predetermined decisions still be considered decisions?)&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Theory #4: Quantum Indeterminacy<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>So far we\u2019ve been discussing the behavior of objects that are relatively large by the standards of physics. For this final theory, Sapolsky delves into subatomic particles like electrons and quarks, which\u2014for reasons that even the world\u2019s top physicists don\u2019t yet understand\u2014behave according to completely different rules from larger objects. Some people believe that those rules, collectively called <a href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/quantum-mechanics-theory\/\">quantum mechanics<\/a>, make free will possible.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Most relevant to this discussion is the principle of <em>quantum indeterminacy<\/em>, which states that a subatomic particle\u2019s behavior at any given moment is <em>not <\/em>the result of what happened the moment before. Scientists have observed this in numerous experiments with subatomic particles; <strong>identical starting conditions can produce different results, which overturns a fundamental point of determinism.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Therefore, it seems that subatomic particles aren\u2019t bound by the same deterministic laws that larger objects are. So, the argument goes, could it be said that those particles are choosing how to behave? And doesn\u2019t that suggest that people\u2014who are, after all, made of such subatomic particles\u2014might be able to do the same?&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"h-sapolsky-s-argument-against-the-quantum-indeterminacy-theory\">Sapolsky\u2019s Argument Against the Quantum Indeterminacy Theory<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>As with the other theories we\u2019ve discussed, Sapolsky has several arguments against the idea that quantum indeterminacy makes free will possible.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The first flaw in this theory is right in the name: The particles\u2019 behavior is <em>indeterminate<\/em>. This means their actions aren\u2019t being controlled (which is to say, <em>determined<\/em>) by any other force, including the force of will. So, even if quantum mechanics do allow for multiple courses of action arising from the same starting point, it still wouldn\u2019t be you choosing which course to take.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This brings us to the second problem: <strong>Quantum indeterminacy is random.<\/strong> Scientists know this because while they can\u2019t predict exactly how subatomic particles will behave, in some experiments they\u2019ve been able to predict how likely each possible outcome is. Therefore, if your free will were fueled by quantum indeterminacy then your actions would also be random, and that\u2019s obviously not the case.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To illustrate the point, you can compare the randomness of subatomic particles to the randomness of rolling dice. For instance, if you roll two six-sided dice, there\u2019s no way of predicting exactly what total you\u2019ll get\u2014but you can calculate the <em>odds <\/em>of each result <a href=\"https:\/\/blogger.googleusercontent.com\/img\/b\/R29vZ2xl\/AVvXsEgbFgr-nxCcgLNOw4yfgmTP2l7xklXemcKq67Ee7tWmLZT4DkIchbZemLMVrK2lposov_wmDKWm_D6lZ0KA-ipofo1BKTw5qCdsYfNuFG6k0lFB18znoGa3eXdURDpY7iUhrkUNud0BSRE\/s1600\/v4n2wgahs8bojsanenb38of0uw7ojbunahhajpgirp_sqkuc7oc8vz-9zdarvx0hveisqsoiljmoetw_1b-dl47h3dl3auzazmenxe8t4ccnqxgiojs.png\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">fairly easily<\/a>. However, human behavior is much too focused and purposeful to be the result of subatomic dice rolls.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Finally, Sapolsky explains that <strong>quantum indeterminacy cancels itself out on the macroscopic scale (anything big enough to see with the naked eye).<\/strong> This is because there are an incredible number of indeterminate quantum events happening at any given time, so they all average out; for each particle that randomly moves, another particle randomly moves in the opposite direction, and the net impact of those movements becomes zero. It\u2019s incredibly unlikely that enough particles would randomly behave the same way to influence even a single one of your neurons, never mind controlling your entire brain for your whole life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Exercise: Think About Determinism and Its Implications<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Take some time to consider what you\u2019ve read. In particular, think about whether you agree with Sapolsky and what determinism could mean for you personally.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Which of Sapolsky\u2019s arguments for determinism do you find most convincing, and why? For example, maybe you found yourself agreeing with Sapolsky\u2019s conclusion that the more we learn, the less we can attribute to free will and personal choice\u2014and, therefore, if we knew everything, then we\u2019d recognize that free will can\u2019t exist.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Which of the author\u2019s arguments do you find <em>least <\/em>compelling, and why? For instance, perhaps you don\u2019t agree that \u201cfree will\u201d has to mean your decisions are totally uninfluenced (incidentally, this would mean you\u2019re most likely a compatibilist).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Are your choices truly your own? Does science prove that free will is just an illusion? In his book Determined, Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and presents compelling counterarguments. He addresses four scientific perspectives on free will, including compatibilism, chaoticism, emergent complexity, and quantum indeterminacy. Prepare to challenge your beliefs about decision-making and human behavior as we examine these thought-provoking theories.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":9,"featured_media":129248,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[21,9,160],"tags":[1577],"class_list":["post-129082","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-philosophy","category-psychology","category-science","tag-determined","","tg-column-two"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v24.3 (Yoast SEO v24.3) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments) - Shortform Books<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren&#039;t viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren&#039;t viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Shortform Books\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1344\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"768\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\/webp\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Elizabeth Whitworth\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Written by\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Elizabeth Whitworth\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Est. reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"8 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Elizabeth Whitworth\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/d2928cf6c11a69ced1491d6a5b74fb13\"},\"headline\":\"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\"},\"wordCount\":1644,\"commentCount\":0,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp\",\"keywords\":[\"Determined\"],\"articleSection\":[\"Philosophy\",\"Psychology\",\"Science\"],\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"CommentAction\",\"name\":\"Comment\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#respond\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\",\"name\":\"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments) - Shortform Books\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00\",\"description\":\"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren't viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.\",\"breadcrumb\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#breadcrumb\"},\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp\",\"width\":1344,\"height\":768,\"caption\":\"A thinking young man with a thought bubble that says \\\"Free Will?\\\" inside of it illustrates theories of free will\"},{\"@type\":\"BreadcrumbList\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#breadcrumb\",\"itemListElement\":[{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":1,\"name\":\"Home\",\"item\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/\"},{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":2,\"name\":\"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)\"}]},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#website\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/\",\"name\":\"Shortform Books\",\"description\":\"The World&#039;s Best Book Summaries\",\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization\"},\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\"},{\"@type\":\"Organization\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization\",\"name\":\"Shortform Books\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/\",\"logo\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/logo-equilateral-with-text-no-bg.png\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/logo-equilateral-with-text-no-bg.png\",\"width\":500,\"height\":74,\"caption\":\"Shortform Books\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/\"}},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/d2928cf6c11a69ced1491d6a5b74fb13\",\"name\":\"Elizabeth Whitworth\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"en-US\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/image\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/1fff9d65a52ac4340660218e7b63ee5e365cf08e7aa7adff79a0142cd4b96f84?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/1fff9d65a52ac4340660218e7b63ee5e365cf08e7aa7adff79a0142cd4b96f84?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"Elizabeth Whitworth\"},\"description\":\"Elizabeth has a lifelong love of books. She devours nonfiction, especially in the areas of history, theology, and philosophy. A switch to audiobooks has kindled her enjoyment of well-narrated fiction, particularly Victorian and early 20th-century works. She appreciates idea-driven books\u2014and a classic murder mystery now and then. Elizabeth has a Substack and is writing a book about what the Bible says about death and hell.\",\"sameAs\":[\"rina@shortform.com\"],\"award\":[\"Contributions to joint task force efforts (FBI)\",\"Contributions to Special Operations Division (DOJ & DEA)\",\"Efforts to fight the war on drugs (NSA)\",\"Contributions to Operation Storm Front (US Customs Service)\"],\"knowsAbout\":[\"History\",\"Theology\",\"Government\"],\"jobTitle\":\"Senior SEO Writer\",\"worksFor\":\"Shortform\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/author\/elizabeth\/\"}]}<\/script>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO Premium plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments) - Shortform Books","description":"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren't viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/","og_locale":"en_US","og_type":"article","og_title":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)","og_description":"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren't viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.","og_url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/","og_site_name":"Shortform Books","article_published_time":"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00","article_modified_time":"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00","og_image":[{"width":1344,"height":768,"url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","type":"image\/webp"}],"author":"Elizabeth Whitworth","twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_misc":{"Written by":"Elizabeth Whitworth","Est. reading time":"8 minutes"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Article","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#article","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/"},"author":{"name":"Elizabeth Whitworth","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/d2928cf6c11a69ced1491d6a5b74fb13"},"headline":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)","datePublished":"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00","dateModified":"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00","mainEntityOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/"},"wordCount":1644,"commentCount":0,"publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","keywords":["Determined"],"articleSection":["Philosophy","Psychology","Science"],"inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":[{"@type":"CommentAction","name":"Comment","target":["https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#respond"]}]},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/","name":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments) - Shortform Books","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","datePublished":"2024-08-23T19:24:42+00:00","dateModified":"2026-04-27T17:01:58+00:00","description":"Robert Sapolsky explores various theories of free will and explains why he thinks they aren't viable. Take a look, and decide for yourself.","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"en-US","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#primaryimage","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","contentUrl":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","width":1344,"height":768,"caption":"A thinking young man with a thought bubble that says \"Free Will?\" inside of it illustrates theories of free will"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/theories-of-free-will\/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"4 Theories of Free Will Based on Science (+ Counterarguments)"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#website","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/","name":"Shortform Books","description":"The World&#039;s Best Book Summaries","publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization"},"potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"en-US"},{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#organization","name":"Shortform Books","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/logo-equilateral-with-text-no-bg.png","contentUrl":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/06\/logo-equilateral-with-text-no-bg.png","width":500,"height":74,"caption":"Shortform Books"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/"}},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/d2928cf6c11a69ced1491d6a5b74fb13","name":"Elizabeth Whitworth","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"en-US","@id":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/#\/schema\/person\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/1fff9d65a52ac4340660218e7b63ee5e365cf08e7aa7adff79a0142cd4b96f84?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/1fff9d65a52ac4340660218e7b63ee5e365cf08e7aa7adff79a0142cd4b96f84?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Elizabeth Whitworth"},"description":"Elizabeth has a lifelong love of books. She devours nonfiction, especially in the areas of history, theology, and philosophy. A switch to audiobooks has kindled her enjoyment of well-narrated fiction, particularly Victorian and early 20th-century works. She appreciates idea-driven books\u2014and a classic murder mystery now and then. Elizabeth has a Substack and is writing a book about what the Bible says about death and hell.","sameAs":["rina@shortform.com"],"award":["Contributions to joint task force efforts (FBI)","Contributions to Special Operations Division (DOJ & DEA)","Efforts to fight the war on drugs (NSA)","Contributions to Operation Storm Front (US Customs Service)"],"knowsAbout":["History","Theology","Government"],"jobTitle":"Senior SEO Writer","worksFor":"Shortform","url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/author\/elizabeth\/"}]}},"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/questioning-free-will.webp","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/129082","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=129082"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/129082\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":148726,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/129082\/revisions\/148726"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/129248"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=129082"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=129082"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=129082"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}